LMPL '25: "The Modular Imperative: Rethinking ..."
The Modular Imperative: Rethinking LLMs for Maintainable Software
Anastasiya Kravchuk-Kirilyuk, Fernanda Graciolli, and Nada Amin
(Harvard University, USA; Midspiral, USA)
Large language models (LLMs) are becoming increasingly integrated into software development, with a majority of developers now adopting AI tools for code generation. Although the current models can often produce syntactically and functionally correct code, they often generate unnecessarily complex solutions, and struggle with large, evolving code bases that have rich internal structure. Most evaluations of LLM-generated code to date have focused primarily on test-based accuracy, unfairly overlooking other essential aspects of software quality. In this paper, we emphasize the importance of modularity — the practice of structuring code into well-defined, reusable components — as a critical lens for improving the maintainability of AI-generated code. We argue that modularity should be a foundational principle in LLM-assisted code generation, empowering models to produce more maintainable, production-ready software.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p106,
author = {Anastasiya Kravchuk-Kirilyuk and Fernanda Graciolli and Nada Amin},
title = {The Modular Imperative: Rethinking LLMs for Maintainable Software},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {106-111},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763392},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Ranking Formal Specifications ..."
Ranking Formal Specifications using LLMs
Mike He, Zhendong Ang, Ankush Desai, and Aarti Gupta
(Princeton University, USA; National University of Singapore, Singapore; Amazon Web Services, USA)
Formal specifications are essential for reasoning about the correctness of complex systems. While recent advances have explored automatically learning such specifications, the challenge of distinguishing meaningful, non-trivial specifications from a vast and noisy pool of learned candidates remains largely open. In this position paper, we present an approach for specification ranking, aimed at identifying the most critical specifications that contribute to overall system correctness. To this end, we develop a four-metric rating framework that quantifies the importance of a specification. Our approach leverages the reasoning capabilities of Large Language Models to rank specifications from a set of automatically learned candidates. We evaluate the proposed method on a set of specifications inferred for 11 open-source and 3 proprietary distributed system benchmarks, demonstrating its effectiveness in ranking critical specifications.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p51,
author = {Mike He and Zhendong Ang and Ankush Desai and Aarti Gupta},
title = {Ranking Formal Specifications using LLMs},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {51-56},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763386},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "A Case Study on the Effectiveness ..."
A Case Study on the Effectiveness of LLMs in Verification with Proof Assistants
Barış Bayazıt, Yao Li, and Xujie Si
(University of Toronto, Canada; Portland State University, USA)
Large language models (LLMs) can potentially help with verification using proof assistants by automating proofs. However, it is unclear how effective LLMs are in this task. In this paper, we perform a case study based on two mature Rocq projects: the hs-to-coq tool and Verdi. We evaluate the effectiveness of LLMs in generating proofs by both quantitative and qualitative analysis. Our study finds that: (1) external dependencies and context in the same source file can significantly help proof generation; (2) LLMs perform great on small proofs but can also generate large proofs; (3) LLMs perform differently on different verification projects; and (4) LLMs can generate concise and smart proofs, apply classical techniques to new definitions, but can also make odd mistakes.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p91,
author = {Barış Bayazıt and Yao Li and Xujie Si},
title = {A Case Study on the Effectiveness of LLMs in Verification with Proof Assistants},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {91-105},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763391},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
Published Artifact
Artifacts Available
LMPL '25: "The LLM Era Demands Natural-Language-Aligned ..."
The LLM Era Demands Natural-Language-Aligned Theorem Provers for Mathematics
Qinxiang Cao, Lihan Xie, and Junchi Yan
(Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China)
Traditional theorem provers were envisioned to serve multiple purposes: formalizing state-of-the-art mathematical research to ensure result reliability, developing educational tools to provide students with better feedback, and acting as formal verifiers to enhance large language models' mathematical capabilities. However, their actual performance has fallen short of expectations in practice. We analyze the challenges faced by these scenarios, and propose that the root of these issues lies in the fact that traditional theorem provers were originally designed with a focus solely on verifying logical rigor rather than representing the process by which humans conduct mathematical proofs using natural language. This fundamental design choice creates a significant gap between existing formal proof processes and informal proofs, causing both human and LLMs to expend substantial resources on handling the provers' technical details rather than focusing on key mathematical insights. Therefore, this paper advocates for the design of a new generation of theorem provers featuring proof languages that resemble natural language, capable of aligning informal and formal processes. Thereby harnessing the advanced natural language processing capabilities of the LLM to enable theorem provers to achieve their full potential across the aforementioned scenarios.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p46,
author = {Qinxiang Cao and Lihan Xie and Junchi Yan},
title = {The LLM Era Demands Natural-Language-Aligned Theorem Provers for Mathematics},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {46-50},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763384},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "CG-Bench: Can Language Models ..."
CG-Bench: Can Language Models Assist Call Graph Construction in the Real World?
Ting Yuan, Wenrui Zhang, Dong Chen, and Jie Wang
(Huawei Technologies, China)
Language models for coding are shifting their focus from function-level to repository-level, with complex function invocations. We introduce CG-Bench, the first manually constructed benchmark that measures the ability to understand call graphs for language models. This benchmark contains 104 call sites and related code snippets associated with call chains from 7 representative open-source C/C++ projects. Language models are tasked with inference the calling targets from them. We evaluated four popular language models on CG-Bench. Surprisingly, all four models with different prompt settings achieve accuracy greater than 50% and Deepseek-6.7b with few-shot prompts reaches 69.70%. We further show four findings from a micro study, which demonstrates that using language models for call graph construction is promising and the performance can be improved by prompt hacking, removing irrelevant information, etc.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p12,
author = {Ting Yuan and Wenrui Zhang and Dong Chen and Jie Wang},
title = {CG-Bench: Can Language Models Assist Call Graph Construction in the Real World?},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {12-20},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763379},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Preguss: It Analyzes, It Specifies, ..."
Preguss: It Analyzes, It Specifies, It Verifies
Zhongyi Wang, Tengjie Lin, Mingshuai Chen, Mingqi Yang, Haokun Li, Xiao Yi, Shengchao Qin, and Jianwei Yin
(Zhejiang University, China; Peking University, China; Chinese University of Hong Kong, China; Xidian University, China)
Fully automated verification of large-scale software and hardware systems is arguably the holy grail of formal methods. Large language models (LLMs) have recently demonstrated their potential for enhancing the degree of automation in formal verification by, e.g., generating formal specifications as essential to deductive verification, yet exhibit poor scalability due to context-length limitations and, more importantly, the difficulty of inferring complex, interprocedural specifications. This paper outlines Preguss - a modular, fine-grained framework for automating the generation and refinement of formal specifications. Preguss synergizes between static analysis and deductive verification by orchestrating two components: (i) potential runtime error (RTE)-guided construction and prioritization of verification units, and (ii) LLM-aided synthesis of interprocedural specifications at the unit level. We envisage that Preguss paves a compelling path towards the automated verification of large-scale programs.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p118,
author = {Zhongyi Wang and Tengjie Lin and Mingshuai Chen and Mingqi Yang and Haokun Li and Xiao Yi and Shengchao Qin and Jianwei Yin},
title = {Preguss: It Analyzes, It Specifies, It Verifies},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {118-123},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763394},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "ClearAgent: Agentic Binary ..."
ClearAgent: Agentic Binary Analysis for Effective Vulnerability Detection
Xiang Chen, Anshunkang Zhou, Chengfeng Ye, and Charles Zhang
(Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, China)
Statically detecting vulnerabilities at the binary level is crucial for the security of Commercial-Off-The-Shelf (COTS) software when source code is not available. However, traditional methods suffer from the inherent limitations of binary translation and static analysis, which hinder their scalability for complex real-world binaries. Recent efforts that leverage Large Language Models (LLMs) for vulnerability detection are still limited by possible hallucination, inaccurate code property retrieval, and insufficient guidance.
In this paper, we propose a new agentic binary analysis framework ClearAgent, which features a novel binary interface that provides both LLM-friendly and analyzer-friendly tools to facilitate effective understanding of binary code semantics with rich context. ClearAgent works by automatically interacting with the interface and iteratively exploring for buggy binary code. For candidate bug reports, ClearAgent further tries to verify the existence of the vulnerability by constructing concrete inputs that can trigger the buggy locations.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p130,
author = {Xiang Chen and Anshunkang Zhou and Chengfeng Ye and Charles Zhang},
title = {ClearAgent: Agentic Binary Analysis for Effective Vulnerability Detection},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {130-137},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763397},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Enhancing Semantic Understanding ..."
Enhancing Semantic Understanding in Pointer Analysis using Large Language Models
Baijun Cheng, Kailong Wang, Ling Shi, Haoyu Wang, Yao Guo, Ding Li, and Xiangqun Chen
(Peking University, China; Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China; Nanyang Technological University, Singapore)
Pointer analysis has been studied for over four decades. However, existing frameworks continue to suffer from the propagation of incorrect facts. A major limitation stems from their insufficient semantic understanding of code, resulting in overly conservative treatment of user-defined functions. Recent advances in large language models (LLMs) present new opportunities to bridge this gap. In this paper, we propose LMPA (LLM-enhanced Pointer Analysis), a vision that integrates LLMs into pointer analysis to enhance both precision and scalability. LMPA identifies user-definedfunctions that resemble system APIs and models them accordingly, thereby mitigating erroneous cross-calling-context propagation. Furthermore, it enhances summary-based analysis by inferring initial points-to sets and introducing a novel summary strategy augmented with natural language. Finally, we discuss the key challenges involved in realizing this vision.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p112,
author = {Baijun Cheng and Kailong Wang and Ling Shi and Haoyu Wang and Yao Guo and Ding Li and Xiangqun Chen},
title = {Enhancing Semantic Understanding in Pointer Analysis using Large Language Models},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {112-117},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763393},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Improving SAST Detection Capability ..."
Improving SAST Detection Capability with LLMs and Enhanced DFA
Yuan Luo, Zhaojun Chen, Yuxin Dong, Haiquan Zhang, Yi Sun, Fei Xie, and Zhiqiang Dong
(Tencent Security Yunding Lab, China; Peking University, China)
Static Application Security Testing (SAST) is a cornerstone of modern vulnerability discovery, enabling tools like GitHub’s CodeQL to identify security flaws in code repositories. However, our large-scale analysis of open-source repositories reveals that SAST’s detection performance is limited by three main factors: (1) incomplete source and sink coverage in built-in propagation rules, (2) failure to recognize sanitization functions, and (3) disruptions in data flow due to insufficient support for certain language features. In this work, we demonstrate how Large Language Models (LLMs) can improve the identification of taint sources and sinks, as well as the recognition of sanitization functions. Using CodeQL as an example, we also introduce the implementation principles of SAST's Data Flow Analysis (DFA). Furthermore, we propose enhancing Java thread support to improve the accuracy of DFA.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p66,
author = {Yuan Luo and Zhaojun Chen and Yuxin Dong and Haiquan Zhang and Yi Sun and Fei Xie and Zhiqiang Dong},
title = {Improving SAST Detection Capability with LLMs and Enhanced DFA},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {66-70},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763388},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Enhancing Semantic Understanding ..."
Enhancing Semantic Understanding in Pointer Analysis using Large Language Models
Baijun Cheng, Kailong Wang, Ling Shi, Haoyu Wang, Yao Guo, Ding Li, and Xiangqun Chen
(Peking University, China; Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China; Nanyang Technological University, Singapore)
Pointer analysis has been studied for over four decades. However, existing frameworks continue to suffer from the propagation of incorrect facts. A major limitation stems from their insufficient semantic understanding of code, resulting in overly conservative treatment of user-defined functions. Recent advances in large language models (LLMs) present new opportunities to bridge this gap. In this paper, we propose LMPA (LLM-enhanced Pointer Analysis), a vision that integrates LLMs into pointer analysis to enhance both precision and scalability. LMPA identifies user-definedfunctions that resemble system APIs and models them accordingly, thereby mitigating erroneous cross-calling-context propagation. Furthermore, it enhances summary-based analysis by inferring initial points-to sets and introducing a novel summary strategy augmented with natural language. Finally, we discuss the key challenges involved in realizing this vision.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p112,
author = {Baijun Cheng and Kailong Wang and Ling Shi and Haoyu Wang and Yao Guo and Ding Li and Xiangqun Chen},
title = {Enhancing Semantic Understanding in Pointer Analysis using Large Language Models},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {112-117},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763393},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "W2GPU: Toward WebAssembly-to-WebGPU ..."
W2GPU: Toward WebAssembly-to-WebGPU Program Translation via Small Language Models
Mehmet Oguz Derin
(Unaffiliated, Türkiye)
The proliferation of WebAssembly (WASM) for portable CPU-bound computation, along with language interoperability, and WebGPU for high-performance graphics and compute, presents a new frontier for web applications. However, a significant semantic gap exists between their respective execution models: WASM's stack-based virtual machine and WebGPU Shading Language's (WGSL) structured, GPU-centric paradigm. This divergence creates a substantial barrier to single-source development, as conventional compilers struggle with the complex, often non-isomorphic translation task, particularly with the constraints of WGSL, such as the absence of 64-bit indexing. This paper proposes a novel approach to bridge this divide by framing the translation from WebAssembly Text (WAT) to WGSL as a fine-tuning task for small language models (SLMs), and a novel data pipeline to generate and validate a large-scale, parallel dataset of 14,547 (WAT, WGSL) pairs from a GLSL corpus. Our preliminary experiments, focusing on sub-2B parameter models with at least 32K native context, demonstrate the feasibility of this approach. The successful convergence of training loss and end-to-end compilation success with computation result parity on an unseen evaluation split, particularly with the Qwen3 model family, indicates that compact models can learn the intricate syntax and structural mappings from a stack-based to a variable-based representation, including GPU-specific aspects such as vectorization, yet, do not generalize well to longer WAT sequences. These initial findings position neural translation as a promising direction for heterogeneous web targets.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p138,
author = {Mehmet Oguz Derin},
title = {W2GPU: Toward WebAssembly-to-WebGPU Program Translation via Small Language Models},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {138-143},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763398},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
Info
LMPL '25: "Ranking Formal Specifications ..."
Ranking Formal Specifications using LLMs
Mike He, Zhendong Ang, Ankush Desai, and Aarti Gupta
(Princeton University, USA; National University of Singapore, Singapore; Amazon Web Services, USA)
Formal specifications are essential for reasoning about the correctness of complex systems. While recent advances have explored automatically learning such specifications, the challenge of distinguishing meaningful, non-trivial specifications from a vast and noisy pool of learned candidates remains largely open. In this position paper, we present an approach for specification ranking, aimed at identifying the most critical specifications that contribute to overall system correctness. To this end, we develop a four-metric rating framework that quantifies the importance of a specification. Our approach leverages the reasoning capabilities of Large Language Models to rank specifications from a set of automatically learned candidates. We evaluate the proposed method on a set of specifications inferred for 11 open-source and 3 proprietary distributed system benchmarks, demonstrating its effectiveness in ranking critical specifications.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p51,
author = {Mike He and Zhendong Ang and Ankush Desai and Aarti Gupta},
title = {Ranking Formal Specifications using LLMs},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {51-56},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763386},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Function Renaming in Reverse ..."
Function Renaming in Reverse Engineering of Embedded Device Firmware with ChatGPT
Puzhuo Liu, Peng Di, and Yu Jiang
(Ant Group, China; Tsinghua University, China; UNSW, Australia)
Firmware reverse engineering is crucial for exposing internal mechanisms and identifying security vulnerabilities in embedded systems. While reconstructing the structural components of code is generally feasible, the absence of function names greatly complicates efforts to analyze and comprehend firmware logic. Motivated by the demonstrated code generation capabilities of large language models (LLMs), this paper investigates their potential to automate function renaming. We introduce FirmNamer, a prototype system designed to streamline the labor-intensive process of ana- lyzing decompiled code and assigning meaningful function names. FirmNamer accomplishes this by dynamically constructing LLM prompts based on extracted function code and contextual informa- tion. Extensive evaluation shows that FirmNamer achieves superior performance in function renaming, obtaining a functional precision of 86.6% and a semantic precision of 49%, thereby surpassing existing state-of-the-art approaches such as DeGPT, DEBIN, NFRE, NERO, and SYMLM.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p57,
author = {Puzhuo Liu and Peng Di and Yu Jiang},
title = {Function Renaming in Reverse Engineering of Embedded Device Firmware with ChatGPT},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {57-65},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763387},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Improving SAST Detection Capability ..."
Improving SAST Detection Capability with LLMs and Enhanced DFA
Yuan Luo, Zhaojun Chen, Yuxin Dong, Haiquan Zhang, Yi Sun, Fei Xie, and Zhiqiang Dong
(Tencent Security Yunding Lab, China; Peking University, China)
Static Application Security Testing (SAST) is a cornerstone of modern vulnerability discovery, enabling tools like GitHub’s CodeQL to identify security flaws in code repositories. However, our large-scale analysis of open-source repositories reveals that SAST’s detection performance is limited by three main factors: (1) incomplete source and sink coverage in built-in propagation rules, (2) failure to recognize sanitization functions, and (3) disruptions in data flow due to insufficient support for certain language features. In this work, we demonstrate how Large Language Models (LLMs) can improve the identification of taint sources and sinks, as well as the recognition of sanitization functions. Using CodeQL as an example, we also introduce the implementation principles of SAST's Data Flow Analysis (DFA). Furthermore, we propose enhancing Java thread support to improve the accuracy of DFA.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p66,
author = {Yuan Luo and Zhaojun Chen and Yuxin Dong and Haiquan Zhang and Yi Sun and Fei Xie and Zhiqiang Dong},
title = {Improving SAST Detection Capability with LLMs and Enhanced DFA},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {66-70},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763388},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Improving SAST Detection Capability ..."
Improving SAST Detection Capability with LLMs and Enhanced DFA
Yuan Luo, Zhaojun Chen, Yuxin Dong, Haiquan Zhang, Yi Sun, Fei Xie, and Zhiqiang Dong
(Tencent Security Yunding Lab, China; Peking University, China)
Static Application Security Testing (SAST) is a cornerstone of modern vulnerability discovery, enabling tools like GitHub’s CodeQL to identify security flaws in code repositories. However, our large-scale analysis of open-source repositories reveals that SAST’s detection performance is limited by three main factors: (1) incomplete source and sink coverage in built-in propagation rules, (2) failure to recognize sanitization functions, and (3) disruptions in data flow due to insufficient support for certain language features. In this work, we demonstrate how Large Language Models (LLMs) can improve the identification of taint sources and sinks, as well as the recognition of sanitization functions. Using CodeQL as an example, we also introduce the implementation principles of SAST's Data Flow Analysis (DFA). Furthermore, we propose enhancing Java thread support to improve the accuracy of DFA.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p66,
author = {Yuan Luo and Zhaojun Chen and Yuxin Dong and Haiquan Zhang and Yi Sun and Fei Xie and Zhiqiang Dong},
title = {Improving SAST Detection Capability with LLMs and Enhanced DFA},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {66-70},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763388},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Programming Language Techniques ..."
Programming Language Techniques for Bridging LLM Code Generation Semantic Gaps
Yalong Du, Chaozheng Wang, and Huaijin Wang
(Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, China; Chinese University of Hong Kong, China; Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, China)
Large Language Models have demonstrated remarkable capabilities in automated code generation, yet their statistical nature and black-box characteristics create significant semantic gaps manifested through syntax errors, semantic hallucinations, and reliability concerns. This position paper argues that principled integration of Programming Language (PL) techniques is essential for bridging these gaps. Through structured program representations, formal correctness guarantees, and robust verification mechanisms, PL techniques can elevate LLM-generated code from statistical pattern matching to truly reliable and trustworthy levels. This integration is crucial for developing systems that generate code that is not only functionally correct but also interpretable, verifiable, and ultimately trustworthy.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p40,
author = {Yalong Du and Chaozheng Wang and Huaijin Wang},
title = {Programming Language Techniques for Bridging LLM Code Generation Semantic Gaps},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {40-45},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763383},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Challenges in C++ to Rust ..."
Challenges in C++ to Rust Translation with Large Language Models: A Preliminary Empirical Study
Yanyan Yan, Yang Feng, Qi He, Jun Zeng, and Baowen Xu
(Nanjing University, China)
C++ programming language is one of the mainstream choices for developing various systems due to its efficiency and widespread application, particularly in fields with high-performance requirements. However, C++ programs may have many memory management and security issues, such as dangling pointers and memory leaks, which pose increasing challenges in modern software development. As a modern programming language designed to address memory safety issues, Rust has gained widespread attention for its ownership system and memory safety features, driving research and practice in migrating C++ code to Rust. However, the differences in syntax and features between C++ and Rust, as well as C++'s complex and object-oriented features, make it extremely difficult to directly convert C++ code into Rust code.
With the development of large language models (LLMs), significant progress has been made in code translation and understanding. This paper aims to investigate the use of LLMs to convert C++ code into Rust code by decomposing the C++ code into independent features, such as classes, templates, and functions etc., and extracting the dependent global symbol definitions through program analysis. We selected GPT-4-turbo and Deepseek-v3 for experimentation, analyzed their performance of translation results, and investigated the root causes made by GPT-4-turbo and Deepseek-v3. By manually classifying errors, we identified the root causes of translation issues and provided findings and suggestions for future research on translating C++ code into Rust code.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p21,
author = {Yanyan Yan and Yang Feng and Qi He and Jun Zeng and Baowen Xu},
title = {Challenges in C++ to Rust Translation with Large Language Models: A Preliminary Empirical Study},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {21-26},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763380},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "The Modular Imperative: Rethinking ..."
The Modular Imperative: Rethinking LLMs for Maintainable Software
Anastasiya Kravchuk-Kirilyuk, Fernanda Graciolli, and Nada Amin
(Harvard University, USA; Midspiral, USA)
Large language models (LLMs) are becoming increasingly integrated into software development, with a majority of developers now adopting AI tools for code generation. Although the current models can often produce syntactically and functionally correct code, they often generate unnecessarily complex solutions, and struggle with large, evolving code bases that have rich internal structure. Most evaluations of LLM-generated code to date have focused primarily on test-based accuracy, unfairly overlooking other essential aspects of software quality. In this paper, we emphasize the importance of modularity — the practice of structuring code into well-defined, reusable components — as a critical lens for improving the maintainability of AI-generated code. We argue that modularity should be a foundational principle in LLM-assisted code generation, empowering models to produce more maintainable, production-ready software.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p106,
author = {Anastasiya Kravchuk-Kirilyuk and Fernanda Graciolli and Nada Amin},
title = {The Modular Imperative: Rethinking LLMs for Maintainable Software},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {106-111},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763392},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Enhancing Semantic Understanding ..."
Enhancing Semantic Understanding in Pointer Analysis using Large Language Models
Baijun Cheng, Kailong Wang, Ling Shi, Haoyu Wang, Yao Guo, Ding Li, and Xiangqun Chen
(Peking University, China; Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China; Nanyang Technological University, Singapore)
Pointer analysis has been studied for over four decades. However, existing frameworks continue to suffer from the propagation of incorrect facts. A major limitation stems from their insufficient semantic understanding of code, resulting in overly conservative treatment of user-defined functions. Recent advances in large language models (LLMs) present new opportunities to bridge this gap. In this paper, we propose LMPA (LLM-enhanced Pointer Analysis), a vision that integrates LLMs into pointer analysis to enhance both precision and scalability. LMPA identifies user-definedfunctions that resemble system APIs and models them accordingly, thereby mitigating erroneous cross-calling-context propagation. Furthermore, it enhances summary-based analysis by inferring initial points-to sets and introducing a novel summary strategy augmented with natural language. Finally, we discuss the key challenges involved in realizing this vision.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p112,
author = {Baijun Cheng and Kailong Wang and Ling Shi and Haoyu Wang and Yao Guo and Ding Li and Xiangqun Chen},
title = {Enhancing Semantic Understanding in Pointer Analysis using Large Language Models},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {112-117},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763393},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Ranking Formal Specifications ..."
Ranking Formal Specifications using LLMs
Mike He, Zhendong Ang, Ankush Desai, and Aarti Gupta
(Princeton University, USA; National University of Singapore, Singapore; Amazon Web Services, USA)
Formal specifications are essential for reasoning about the correctness of complex systems. While recent advances have explored automatically learning such specifications, the challenge of distinguishing meaningful, non-trivial specifications from a vast and noisy pool of learned candidates remains largely open. In this position paper, we present an approach for specification ranking, aimed at identifying the most critical specifications that contribute to overall system correctness. To this end, we develop a four-metric rating framework that quantifies the importance of a specification. Our approach leverages the reasoning capabilities of Large Language Models to rank specifications from a set of automatically learned candidates. We evaluate the proposed method on a set of specifications inferred for 11 open-source and 3 proprietary distributed system benchmarks, demonstrating its effectiveness in ranking critical specifications.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p51,
author = {Mike He and Zhendong Ang and Ankush Desai and Aarti Gupta},
title = {Ranking Formal Specifications using LLMs},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {51-56},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763386},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Ranking Formal Specifications ..."
Ranking Formal Specifications using LLMs
Mike He, Zhendong Ang, Ankush Desai, and Aarti Gupta
(Princeton University, USA; National University of Singapore, Singapore; Amazon Web Services, USA)
Formal specifications are essential for reasoning about the correctness of complex systems. While recent advances have explored automatically learning such specifications, the challenge of distinguishing meaningful, non-trivial specifications from a vast and noisy pool of learned candidates remains largely open. In this position paper, we present an approach for specification ranking, aimed at identifying the most critical specifications that contribute to overall system correctness. To this end, we develop a four-metric rating framework that quantifies the importance of a specification. Our approach leverages the reasoning capabilities of Large Language Models to rank specifications from a set of automatically learned candidates. We evaluate the proposed method on a set of specifications inferred for 11 open-source and 3 proprietary distributed system benchmarks, demonstrating its effectiveness in ranking critical specifications.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p51,
author = {Mike He and Zhendong Ang and Ankush Desai and Aarti Gupta},
title = {Ranking Formal Specifications using LLMs},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {51-56},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763386},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Challenges in C++ to Rust ..."
Challenges in C++ to Rust Translation with Large Language Models: A Preliminary Empirical Study
Yanyan Yan, Yang Feng, Qi He, Jun Zeng, and Baowen Xu
(Nanjing University, China)
C++ programming language is one of the mainstream choices for developing various systems due to its efficiency and widespread application, particularly in fields with high-performance requirements. However, C++ programs may have many memory management and security issues, such as dangling pointers and memory leaks, which pose increasing challenges in modern software development. As a modern programming language designed to address memory safety issues, Rust has gained widespread attention for its ownership system and memory safety features, driving research and practice in migrating C++ code to Rust. However, the differences in syntax and features between C++ and Rust, as well as C++'s complex and object-oriented features, make it extremely difficult to directly convert C++ code into Rust code.
With the development of large language models (LLMs), significant progress has been made in code translation and understanding. This paper aims to investigate the use of LLMs to convert C++ code into Rust code by decomposing the C++ code into independent features, such as classes, templates, and functions etc., and extracting the dependent global symbol definitions through program analysis. We selected GPT-4-turbo and Deepseek-v3 for experimentation, analyzed their performance of translation results, and investigated the root causes made by GPT-4-turbo and Deepseek-v3. By manually classifying errors, we identified the root causes of translation issues and provided findings and suggestions for future research on translating C++ code into Rust code.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p21,
author = {Yanyan Yan and Yang Feng and Qi He and Jun Zeng and Baowen Xu},
title = {Challenges in C++ to Rust Translation with Large Language Models: A Preliminary Empirical Study},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {21-26},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763380},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Function Renaming in Reverse ..."
Function Renaming in Reverse Engineering of Embedded Device Firmware with ChatGPT
Puzhuo Liu, Peng Di, and Yu Jiang
(Ant Group, China; Tsinghua University, China; UNSW, Australia)
Firmware reverse engineering is crucial for exposing internal mechanisms and identifying security vulnerabilities in embedded systems. While reconstructing the structural components of code is generally feasible, the absence of function names greatly complicates efforts to analyze and comprehend firmware logic. Motivated by the demonstrated code generation capabilities of large language models (LLMs), this paper investigates their potential to automate function renaming. We introduce FirmNamer, a prototype system designed to streamline the labor-intensive process of ana- lyzing decompiled code and assigning meaningful function names. FirmNamer accomplishes this by dynamically constructing LLM prompts based on extracted function code and contextual informa- tion. Extensive evaluation shows that FirmNamer achieves superior performance in function renaming, obtaining a functional precision of 86.6% and a semantic precision of 49%, thereby surpassing existing state-of-the-art approaches such as DeGPT, DEBIN, NFRE, NERO, and SYMLM.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p57,
author = {Puzhuo Liu and Peng Di and Yu Jiang},
title = {Function Renaming in Reverse Engineering of Embedded Device Firmware with ChatGPT},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {57-65},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763387},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Understanding Formal Reasoning ..."
Understanding Formal Reasoning Failures in LLMs as Abstract Interpreters
Jacqueline Mitchell, Brian Hyeongseok Kim, Chenyu Zhou, and Chao Wang
(University of Southern California, USA)
Large language models (LLMs) are increasingly used for program verification, and yet little is known about how they reason about program semantics during this process. In this work, we focus on abstract interpretation based-reasoning for invariant generation and introduce two novel prompting strategies that aim to elicit such reasoning from LLMs. We evaluate these strategies across several state-of-the-art LLMs on 22 programs from the SV-COMP benchmark suite widely used in software verification. We analyze both the soundness of the generated invariants and the key thematic patterns in the models’ reasoning errors. This work aims to highlight new research opportunities at the intersection of LLMs and program verification for applying LLMs to verification tasks and advancing their reasoning capabilities in this application.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p71,
author = {Jacqueline Mitchell and Brian Hyeongseok Kim and Chenyu Zhou and Chao Wang},
title = {Understanding Formal Reasoning Failures in LLMs as Abstract Interpreters},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {71-83},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763389},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "The Modular Imperative: Rethinking ..."
The Modular Imperative: Rethinking LLMs for Maintainable Software
Anastasiya Kravchuk-Kirilyuk, Fernanda Graciolli, and Nada Amin
(Harvard University, USA; Midspiral, USA)
Large language models (LLMs) are becoming increasingly integrated into software development, with a majority of developers now adopting AI tools for code generation. Although the current models can often produce syntactically and functionally correct code, they often generate unnecessarily complex solutions, and struggle with large, evolving code bases that have rich internal structure. Most evaluations of LLM-generated code to date have focused primarily on test-based accuracy, unfairly overlooking other essential aspects of software quality. In this paper, we emphasize the importance of modularity — the practice of structuring code into well-defined, reusable components — as a critical lens for improving the maintainability of AI-generated code. We argue that modularity should be a foundational principle in LLM-assisted code generation, empowering models to produce more maintainable, production-ready software.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p106,
author = {Anastasiya Kravchuk-Kirilyuk and Fernanda Graciolli and Nada Amin},
title = {The Modular Imperative: Rethinking LLMs for Maintainable Software},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {106-111},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763392},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Enhancing Semantic Understanding ..."
Enhancing Semantic Understanding in Pointer Analysis using Large Language Models
Baijun Cheng, Kailong Wang, Ling Shi, Haoyu Wang, Yao Guo, Ding Li, and Xiangqun Chen
(Peking University, China; Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China; Nanyang Technological University, Singapore)
Pointer analysis has been studied for over four decades. However, existing frameworks continue to suffer from the propagation of incorrect facts. A major limitation stems from their insufficient semantic understanding of code, resulting in overly conservative treatment of user-defined functions. Recent advances in large language models (LLMs) present new opportunities to bridge this gap. In this paper, we propose LMPA (LLM-enhanced Pointer Analysis), a vision that integrates LLMs into pointer analysis to enhance both precision and scalability. LMPA identifies user-definedfunctions that resemble system APIs and models them accordingly, thereby mitigating erroneous cross-calling-context propagation. Furthermore, it enhances summary-based analysis by inferring initial points-to sets and introducing a novel summary strategy augmented with natural language. Finally, we discuss the key challenges involved in realizing this vision.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p112,
author = {Baijun Cheng and Kailong Wang and Ling Shi and Haoyu Wang and Yao Guo and Ding Li and Xiangqun Chen},
title = {Enhancing Semantic Understanding in Pointer Analysis using Large Language Models},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {112-117},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763393},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Preguss: It Analyzes, It Specifies, ..."
Preguss: It Analyzes, It Specifies, It Verifies
Zhongyi Wang, Tengjie Lin, Mingshuai Chen, Mingqi Yang, Haokun Li, Xiao Yi, Shengchao Qin, and Jianwei Yin
(Zhejiang University, China; Peking University, China; Chinese University of Hong Kong, China; Xidian University, China)
Fully automated verification of large-scale software and hardware systems is arguably the holy grail of formal methods. Large language models (LLMs) have recently demonstrated their potential for enhancing the degree of automation in formal verification by, e.g., generating formal specifications as essential to deductive verification, yet exhibit poor scalability due to context-length limitations and, more importantly, the difficulty of inferring complex, interprocedural specifications. This paper outlines Preguss - a modular, fine-grained framework for automating the generation and refinement of formal specifications. Preguss synergizes between static analysis and deductive verification by orchestrating two components: (i) potential runtime error (RTE)-guided construction and prioritization of verification units, and (ii) LLM-aided synthesis of interprocedural specifications at the unit level. We envisage that Preguss paves a compelling path towards the automated verification of large-scale programs.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p118,
author = {Zhongyi Wang and Tengjie Lin and Mingshuai Chen and Mingqi Yang and Haokun Li and Xiao Yi and Shengchao Qin and Jianwei Yin},
title = {Preguss: It Analyzes, It Specifies, It Verifies},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {118-123},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763394},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "A Case Study on the Effectiveness ..."
A Case Study on the Effectiveness of LLMs in Verification with Proof Assistants
Barış Bayazıt, Yao Li, and Xujie Si
(University of Toronto, Canada; Portland State University, USA)
Large language models (LLMs) can potentially help with verification using proof assistants by automating proofs. However, it is unclear how effective LLMs are in this task. In this paper, we perform a case study based on two mature Rocq projects: the hs-to-coq tool and Verdi. We evaluate the effectiveness of LLMs in generating proofs by both quantitative and qualitative analysis. Our study finds that: (1) external dependencies and context in the same source file can significantly help proof generation; (2) LLMs perform great on small proofs but can also generate large proofs; (3) LLMs perform differently on different verification projects; and (4) LLMs can generate concise and smart proofs, apply classical techniques to new definitions, but can also make odd mistakes.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p91,
author = {Barış Bayazıt and Yao Li and Xujie Si},
title = {A Case Study on the Effectiveness of LLMs in Verification with Proof Assistants},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {91-105},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763391},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
Published Artifact
Artifacts Available
LMPL '25: "Reasoning as a Resource: Optimizing ..."
Reasoning as a Resource: Optimizing Fast and Slow Thinking in Code Generation Models
Zongjie Li and Shuai Wang
(Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, China)
This position paper proposes a fundamental shift in designing code generation models: treating reasoning depth as a controllable resource. Rather than being an incidental by-product of prompting, we argue that the trade-off between rapid, direct answers ("fast thinking") and elaborate, chain-of-thought deliberation ("slow thinking") must be explicitly managed. We contend that optimizing reasoning budgets across the entire model lifecycle—from synthetic data creation and benchmarking to real-world deployment—can unlock superior trade-offs among accuracy, latency, and cost. This paper outlines how adaptive control over reasoning can enrich supervision signals, motivate new multi-dimensional benchmarks, and inform cost-aware, security-conscious deployment policies. By viewing fast and slow thinking as complementary modes to be scheduled, we envision coding agents that think deep when necessary and act fast when possible.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p1,
author = {Zongjie Li and Shuai Wang},
title = {Reasoning as a Resource: Optimizing Fast and Slow Thinking in Code Generation Models},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {1-5},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763377},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Preguss: It Analyzes, It Specifies, ..."
Preguss: It Analyzes, It Specifies, It Verifies
Zhongyi Wang, Tengjie Lin, Mingshuai Chen, Mingqi Yang, Haokun Li, Xiao Yi, Shengchao Qin, and Jianwei Yin
(Zhejiang University, China; Peking University, China; Chinese University of Hong Kong, China; Xidian University, China)
Fully automated verification of large-scale software and hardware systems is arguably the holy grail of formal methods. Large language models (LLMs) have recently demonstrated their potential for enhancing the degree of automation in formal verification by, e.g., generating formal specifications as essential to deductive verification, yet exhibit poor scalability due to context-length limitations and, more importantly, the difficulty of inferring complex, interprocedural specifications. This paper outlines Preguss - a modular, fine-grained framework for automating the generation and refinement of formal specifications. Preguss synergizes between static analysis and deductive verification by orchestrating two components: (i) potential runtime error (RTE)-guided construction and prioritization of verification units, and (ii) LLM-aided synthesis of interprocedural specifications at the unit level. We envisage that Preguss paves a compelling path towards the automated verification of large-scale programs.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p118,
author = {Zhongyi Wang and Tengjie Lin and Mingshuai Chen and Mingqi Yang and Haokun Li and Xiao Yi and Shengchao Qin and Jianwei Yin},
title = {Preguss: It Analyzes, It Specifies, It Verifies},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {118-123},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763394},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Function Renaming in Reverse ..."
Function Renaming in Reverse Engineering of Embedded Device Firmware with ChatGPT
Puzhuo Liu, Peng Di, and Yu Jiang
(Ant Group, China; Tsinghua University, China; UNSW, Australia)
Firmware reverse engineering is crucial for exposing internal mechanisms and identifying security vulnerabilities in embedded systems. While reconstructing the structural components of code is generally feasible, the absence of function names greatly complicates efforts to analyze and comprehend firmware logic. Motivated by the demonstrated code generation capabilities of large language models (LLMs), this paper investigates their potential to automate function renaming. We introduce FirmNamer, a prototype system designed to streamline the labor-intensive process of ana- lyzing decompiled code and assigning meaningful function names. FirmNamer accomplishes this by dynamically constructing LLM prompts based on extracted function code and contextual informa- tion. Extensive evaluation shows that FirmNamer achieves superior performance in function renaming, obtaining a functional precision of 86.6% and a semantic precision of 49%, thereby surpassing existing state-of-the-art approaches such as DeGPT, DEBIN, NFRE, NERO, and SYMLM.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p57,
author = {Puzhuo Liu and Peng Di and Yu Jiang},
title = {Function Renaming in Reverse Engineering of Embedded Device Firmware with ChatGPT},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {57-65},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763387},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Improving SAST Detection Capability ..."
Improving SAST Detection Capability with LLMs and Enhanced DFA
Yuan Luo, Zhaojun Chen, Yuxin Dong, Haiquan Zhang, Yi Sun, Fei Xie, and Zhiqiang Dong
(Tencent Security Yunding Lab, China; Peking University, China)
Static Application Security Testing (SAST) is a cornerstone of modern vulnerability discovery, enabling tools like GitHub’s CodeQL to identify security flaws in code repositories. However, our large-scale analysis of open-source repositories reveals that SAST’s detection performance is limited by three main factors: (1) incomplete source and sink coverage in built-in propagation rules, (2) failure to recognize sanitization functions, and (3) disruptions in data flow due to insufficient support for certain language features. In this work, we demonstrate how Large Language Models (LLMs) can improve the identification of taint sources and sinks, as well as the recognition of sanitization functions. Using CodeQL as an example, we also introduce the implementation principles of SAST's Data Flow Analysis (DFA). Furthermore, we propose enhancing Java thread support to improve the accuracy of DFA.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p66,
author = {Yuan Luo and Zhaojun Chen and Yuxin Dong and Haiquan Zhang and Yi Sun and Fei Xie and Zhiqiang Dong},
title = {Improving SAST Detection Capability with LLMs and Enhanced DFA},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {66-70},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763388},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Understanding Formal Reasoning ..."
Understanding Formal Reasoning Failures in LLMs as Abstract Interpreters
Jacqueline Mitchell, Brian Hyeongseok Kim, Chenyu Zhou, and Chao Wang
(University of Southern California, USA)
Large language models (LLMs) are increasingly used for program verification, and yet little is known about how they reason about program semantics during this process. In this work, we focus on abstract interpretation based-reasoning for invariant generation and introduce two novel prompting strategies that aim to elicit such reasoning from LLMs. We evaluate these strategies across several state-of-the-art LLMs on 22 programs from the SV-COMP benchmark suite widely used in software verification. We analyze both the soundness of the generated invariants and the key thematic patterns in the models’ reasoning errors. This work aims to highlight new research opportunities at the intersection of LLMs and program verification for applying LLMs to verification tasks and advancing their reasoning capabilities in this application.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p71,
author = {Jacqueline Mitchell and Brian Hyeongseok Kim and Chenyu Zhou and Chao Wang},
title = {Understanding Formal Reasoning Failures in LLMs as Abstract Interpreters},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {71-83},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763389},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Position: Vibe Coding Needs ..."
Position: Vibe Coding Needs Vibe Reasoning: Improving Vibe Coding with Formal Verification
Jacqueline Mitchell and Yasser Shaaban
(University of Southern California, USA; Workato, USA)
“Vibe coding” — the practice of developing software through iteratively conversing with a large language model (LLM) — has exploded in popularity within the last year. However, developers report key limitations including the accumulation of technical debt, security issues, and code churn to achieve satisfactory results. We argue that these pitfalls result from LLMs’ inability to reconcile accumulating human-imposed constraints during vibe coding, with developers inadvertently failing to resolve contradictions because LLMs prioritize user commands over code consistency. Given LLMs’ receptiveness to verification-based feedback, we argue that formal methods can mitigate these pitfalls, making vibe coding more reliable. However, we posit that integrating formal methods must transcend existing approaches that combine formal methods and LLMs. We advocate for a side-car system throughout the vibe coding process which: (1) Autoformalizes specifications (2) Validates against targets, (3) Delivers actionable feedback to the LLM, and (4) Allows intuitive developer influence on specifications.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p84,
author = {Jacqueline Mitchell and Yasser Shaaban},
title = {Position: Vibe Coding Needs Vibe Reasoning: Improving Vibe Coding with Formal Verification},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {84-90},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763390},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Preguss: It Analyzes, It Specifies, ..."
Preguss: It Analyzes, It Specifies, It Verifies
Zhongyi Wang, Tengjie Lin, Mingshuai Chen, Mingqi Yang, Haokun Li, Xiao Yi, Shengchao Qin, and Jianwei Yin
(Zhejiang University, China; Peking University, China; Chinese University of Hong Kong, China; Xidian University, China)
Fully automated verification of large-scale software and hardware systems is arguably the holy grail of formal methods. Large language models (LLMs) have recently demonstrated their potential for enhancing the degree of automation in formal verification by, e.g., generating formal specifications as essential to deductive verification, yet exhibit poor scalability due to context-length limitations and, more importantly, the difficulty of inferring complex, interprocedural specifications. This paper outlines Preguss - a modular, fine-grained framework for automating the generation and refinement of formal specifications. Preguss synergizes between static analysis and deductive verification by orchestrating two components: (i) potential runtime error (RTE)-guided construction and prioritization of verification units, and (ii) LLM-aided synthesis of interprocedural specifications at the unit level. We envisage that Preguss paves a compelling path towards the automated verification of large-scale programs.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p118,
author = {Zhongyi Wang and Tengjie Lin and Mingshuai Chen and Mingqi Yang and Haokun Li and Xiao Yi and Shengchao Qin and Jianwei Yin},
title = {Preguss: It Analyzes, It Specifies, It Verifies},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {118-123},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763394},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Position: Vibe Coding Needs ..."
Position: Vibe Coding Needs Vibe Reasoning: Improving Vibe Coding with Formal Verification
Jacqueline Mitchell and Yasser Shaaban
(University of Southern California, USA; Workato, USA)
“Vibe coding” — the practice of developing software through iteratively conversing with a large language model (LLM) — has exploded in popularity within the last year. However, developers report key limitations including the accumulation of technical debt, security issues, and code churn to achieve satisfactory results. We argue that these pitfalls result from LLMs’ inability to reconcile accumulating human-imposed constraints during vibe coding, with developers inadvertently failing to resolve contradictions because LLMs prioritize user commands over code consistency. Given LLMs’ receptiveness to verification-based feedback, we argue that formal methods can mitigate these pitfalls, making vibe coding more reliable. However, we posit that integrating formal methods must transcend existing approaches that combine formal methods and LLMs. We advocate for a side-car system throughout the vibe coding process which: (1) Autoformalizes specifications (2) Validates against targets, (3) Delivers actionable feedback to the LLM, and (4) Allows intuitive developer influence on specifications.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p84,
author = {Jacqueline Mitchell and Yasser Shaaban},
title = {Position: Vibe Coding Needs Vibe Reasoning: Improving Vibe Coding with Formal Verification},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {84-90},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763390},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Enhancing Semantic Understanding ..."
Enhancing Semantic Understanding in Pointer Analysis using Large Language Models
Baijun Cheng, Kailong Wang, Ling Shi, Haoyu Wang, Yao Guo, Ding Li, and Xiangqun Chen
(Peking University, China; Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China; Nanyang Technological University, Singapore)
Pointer analysis has been studied for over four decades. However, existing frameworks continue to suffer from the propagation of incorrect facts. A major limitation stems from their insufficient semantic understanding of code, resulting in overly conservative treatment of user-defined functions. Recent advances in large language models (LLMs) present new opportunities to bridge this gap. In this paper, we propose LMPA (LLM-enhanced Pointer Analysis), a vision that integrates LLMs into pointer analysis to enhance both precision and scalability. LMPA identifies user-definedfunctions that resemble system APIs and models them accordingly, thereby mitigating erroneous cross-calling-context propagation. Furthermore, it enhances summary-based analysis by inferring initial points-to sets and introducing a novel summary strategy augmented with natural language. Finally, we discuss the key challenges involved in realizing this vision.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p112,
author = {Baijun Cheng and Kailong Wang and Ling Shi and Haoyu Wang and Yao Guo and Ding Li and Xiangqun Chen},
title = {Enhancing Semantic Understanding in Pointer Analysis using Large Language Models},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {112-117},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763393},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Towards Repository-Level Program ..."
Towards Repository-Level Program Verification with Large Language Models
Si Cheng Zhong and Xujie Si
(University of Toronto, Canada)
Recent advancements in large language models (LLMs) suggest great promises in code and proof generations. However, scaling automated formal verification to real-world projects requires resolving cross-module dependencies and global contexts, which are crucial challenges overlooked by existing LLM-based methods with a special focus on targeting isolated, function-level verification tasks. To systematically explore and address the significant challenges of verifying entire software repositories, we introduce RVBench, the first verification benchmark explicitly designed for repository-level evaluation, constructed from four diverse and complex open-source Verus projects.
We further introduce RagVerus, an extensible framework that synergizes retrieval-augmented generation with context-aware prompting to automate proof synthesis for multi-module repositories. RagVerus triples proof pass rates on existing benchmarks under constrained model inference budgets, and achieves a 27% relative improvement on the more challenging RVBench benchmark, demonstrating a scalable and sample-efficient verification solution.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p27,
author = {Si Cheng Zhong and Xujie Si},
title = {Towards Repository-Level Program Verification with Large Language Models},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {27-39},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763382},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "A Case Study on the Effectiveness ..."
A Case Study on the Effectiveness of LLMs in Verification with Proof Assistants
Barış Bayazıt, Yao Li, and Xujie Si
(University of Toronto, Canada; Portland State University, USA)
Large language models (LLMs) can potentially help with verification using proof assistants by automating proofs. However, it is unclear how effective LLMs are in this task. In this paper, we perform a case study based on two mature Rocq projects: the hs-to-coq tool and Verdi. We evaluate the effectiveness of LLMs in generating proofs by both quantitative and qualitative analysis. Our study finds that: (1) external dependencies and context in the same source file can significantly help proof generation; (2) LLMs perform great on small proofs but can also generate large proofs; (3) LLMs perform differently on different verification projects; and (4) LLMs can generate concise and smart proofs, apply classical techniques to new definitions, but can also make odd mistakes.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p91,
author = {Barış Bayazıt and Yao Li and Xujie Si},
title = {A Case Study on the Effectiveness of LLMs in Verification with Proof Assistants},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {91-105},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763391},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
Published Artifact
Artifacts Available
LMPL '25: "Improving SAST Detection Capability ..."
Improving SAST Detection Capability with LLMs and Enhanced DFA
Yuan Luo, Zhaojun Chen, Yuxin Dong, Haiquan Zhang, Yi Sun, Fei Xie, and Zhiqiang Dong
(Tencent Security Yunding Lab, China; Peking University, China)
Static Application Security Testing (SAST) is a cornerstone of modern vulnerability discovery, enabling tools like GitHub’s CodeQL to identify security flaws in code repositories. However, our large-scale analysis of open-source repositories reveals that SAST’s detection performance is limited by three main factors: (1) incomplete source and sink coverage in built-in propagation rules, (2) failure to recognize sanitization functions, and (3) disruptions in data flow due to insufficient support for certain language features. In this work, we demonstrate how Large Language Models (LLMs) can improve the identification of taint sources and sinks, as well as the recognition of sanitization functions. Using CodeQL as an example, we also introduce the implementation principles of SAST's Data Flow Analysis (DFA). Furthermore, we propose enhancing Java thread support to improve the accuracy of DFA.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p66,
author = {Yuan Luo and Zhaojun Chen and Yuxin Dong and Haiquan Zhang and Yi Sun and Fei Xie and Zhiqiang Dong},
title = {Improving SAST Detection Capability with LLMs and Enhanced DFA},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {66-70},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763388},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Hallucination-Resilient LLM-Driven ..."
Hallucination-Resilient LLM-Driven Sound and Tunable Static Analysis: A Case of Higher-Order Control-Flow Analysis
Guannan Wei, Zhuo Zhang, and Caterina Urban
(Inria, France; ENS-PSL University, France; Tufts University, USA; Columbia University, USA)
We argue that soundness remains essential for LLM-driven static analysis and discuss hallucination-resilient approaches in combining LLMs with static analysis that ensure soundness while improving precision. We propose to use LLMs as a way of meta-analysis and investigate this approach in higher-order control-flow analysis, building on the abstracting abstract machine framework and delegating abstract address allocation to an LLM. Our analyzer LLMAAM maintains soundness regardless of LLM behavior, while adaptively tuning analysis precision. We report promising preliminary results and outline broader opportunities for sound LLM-driven analysis.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p6,
author = {Guannan Wei and Zhuo Zhang and Caterina Urban},
title = {Hallucination-Resilient LLM-Driven Sound and Tunable Static Analysis: A Case of Higher-Order Control-Flow Analysis},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {6-11},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763378},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Understanding Formal Reasoning ..."
Understanding Formal Reasoning Failures in LLMs as Abstract Interpreters
Jacqueline Mitchell, Brian Hyeongseok Kim, Chenyu Zhou, and Chao Wang
(University of Southern California, USA)
Large language models (LLMs) are increasingly used for program verification, and yet little is known about how they reason about program semantics during this process. In this work, we focus on abstract interpretation based-reasoning for invariant generation and introduce two novel prompting strategies that aim to elicit such reasoning from LLMs. We evaluate these strategies across several state-of-the-art LLMs on 22 programs from the SV-COMP benchmark suite widely used in software verification. We analyze both the soundness of the generated invariants and the key thematic patterns in the models’ reasoning errors. This work aims to highlight new research opportunities at the intersection of LLMs and program verification for applying LLMs to verification tasks and advancing their reasoning capabilities in this application.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p71,
author = {Jacqueline Mitchell and Brian Hyeongseok Kim and Chenyu Zhou and Chao Wang},
title = {Understanding Formal Reasoning Failures in LLMs as Abstract Interpreters},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {71-83},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763389},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Programming Language Techniques ..."
Programming Language Techniques for Bridging LLM Code Generation Semantic Gaps
Yalong Du, Chaozheng Wang, and Huaijin Wang
(Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, China; Chinese University of Hong Kong, China; Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, China)
Large Language Models have demonstrated remarkable capabilities in automated code generation, yet their statistical nature and black-box characteristics create significant semantic gaps manifested through syntax errors, semantic hallucinations, and reliability concerns. This position paper argues that principled integration of Programming Language (PL) techniques is essential for bridging these gaps. Through structured program representations, formal correctness guarantees, and robust verification mechanisms, PL techniques can elevate LLM-generated code from statistical pattern matching to truly reliable and trustworthy levels. This integration is crucial for developing systems that generate code that is not only functionally correct but also interpretable, verifiable, and ultimately trustworthy.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p40,
author = {Yalong Du and Chaozheng Wang and Huaijin Wang},
title = {Programming Language Techniques for Bridging LLM Code Generation Semantic Gaps},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {40-45},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763383},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Composable Effect Handling ..."
Composable Effect Handling for Programming LLM-Integrated Scripts
Di Wang
(Peking University, China)
Implementing LLM-integrated scripts introduces challenges in modularity and performance, as scripts are often coupled to specific LLM implementations and fail to exploit parallelization opportunities. This paper proposes using composable effect handling to separate workflow logic from effectful operations, such as LLM calls, I/O, and concurrency, enabling modularity without sacrificing the opportunity for performance optimization. By treating these operations as abstract interfaces and discharging them via effect handlers, this paper shows that scripts can achieve significant speedups (e.g., 10× in a Tree-of-Thoughts case study) without compromising modularity. This paper aims to promote composable effect handling as a programming style for LLM scripting.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p124,
author = {Di Wang},
title = {Composable Effect Handling for Programming LLM-Integrated Scripts},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {124-129},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763396},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Enhancing Semantic Understanding ..."
Enhancing Semantic Understanding in Pointer Analysis using Large Language Models
Baijun Cheng, Kailong Wang, Ling Shi, Haoyu Wang, Yao Guo, Ding Li, and Xiangqun Chen
(Peking University, China; Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China; Nanyang Technological University, Singapore)
Pointer analysis has been studied for over four decades. However, existing frameworks continue to suffer from the propagation of incorrect facts. A major limitation stems from their insufficient semantic understanding of code, resulting in overly conservative treatment of user-defined functions. Recent advances in large language models (LLMs) present new opportunities to bridge this gap. In this paper, we propose LMPA (LLM-enhanced Pointer Analysis), a vision that integrates LLMs into pointer analysis to enhance both precision and scalability. LMPA identifies user-definedfunctions that resemble system APIs and models them accordingly, thereby mitigating erroneous cross-calling-context propagation. Furthermore, it enhances summary-based analysis by inferring initial points-to sets and introducing a novel summary strategy augmented with natural language. Finally, we discuss the key challenges involved in realizing this vision.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p112,
author = {Baijun Cheng and Kailong Wang and Ling Shi and Haoyu Wang and Yao Guo and Ding Li and Xiangqun Chen},
title = {Enhancing Semantic Understanding in Pointer Analysis using Large Language Models},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {112-117},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763393},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Programming Language Techniques ..."
Programming Language Techniques for Bridging LLM Code Generation Semantic Gaps
Yalong Du, Chaozheng Wang, and Huaijin Wang
(Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, China; Chinese University of Hong Kong, China; Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, China)
Large Language Models have demonstrated remarkable capabilities in automated code generation, yet their statistical nature and black-box characteristics create significant semantic gaps manifested through syntax errors, semantic hallucinations, and reliability concerns. This position paper argues that principled integration of Programming Language (PL) techniques is essential for bridging these gaps. Through structured program representations, formal correctness guarantees, and robust verification mechanisms, PL techniques can elevate LLM-generated code from statistical pattern matching to truly reliable and trustworthy levels. This integration is crucial for developing systems that generate code that is not only functionally correct but also interpretable, verifiable, and ultimately trustworthy.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p40,
author = {Yalong Du and Chaozheng Wang and Huaijin Wang},
title = {Programming Language Techniques for Bridging LLM Code Generation Semantic Gaps},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {40-45},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763383},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "CG-Bench: Can Language Models ..."
CG-Bench: Can Language Models Assist Call Graph Construction in the Real World?
Ting Yuan, Wenrui Zhang, Dong Chen, and Jie Wang
(Huawei Technologies, China)
Language models for coding are shifting their focus from function-level to repository-level, with complex function invocations. We introduce CG-Bench, the first manually constructed benchmark that measures the ability to understand call graphs for language models. This benchmark contains 104 call sites and related code snippets associated with call chains from 7 representative open-source C/C++ projects. Language models are tasked with inference the calling targets from them. We evaluated four popular language models on CG-Bench. Surprisingly, all four models with different prompt settings achieve accuracy greater than 50% and Deepseek-6.7b with few-shot prompts reaches 69.70%. We further show four findings from a micro study, which demonstrates that using language models for call graph construction is promising and the performance can be improved by prompt hacking, removing irrelevant information, etc.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p12,
author = {Ting Yuan and Wenrui Zhang and Dong Chen and Jie Wang},
title = {CG-Bench: Can Language Models Assist Call Graph Construction in the Real World?},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {12-20},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763379},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Enhancing Semantic Understanding ..."
Enhancing Semantic Understanding in Pointer Analysis using Large Language Models
Baijun Cheng, Kailong Wang, Ling Shi, Haoyu Wang, Yao Guo, Ding Li, and Xiangqun Chen
(Peking University, China; Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China; Nanyang Technological University, Singapore)
Pointer analysis has been studied for over four decades. However, existing frameworks continue to suffer from the propagation of incorrect facts. A major limitation stems from their insufficient semantic understanding of code, resulting in overly conservative treatment of user-defined functions. Recent advances in large language models (LLMs) present new opportunities to bridge this gap. In this paper, we propose LMPA (LLM-enhanced Pointer Analysis), a vision that integrates LLMs into pointer analysis to enhance both precision and scalability. LMPA identifies user-definedfunctions that resemble system APIs and models them accordingly, thereby mitigating erroneous cross-calling-context propagation. Furthermore, it enhances summary-based analysis by inferring initial points-to sets and introducing a novel summary strategy augmented with natural language. Finally, we discuss the key challenges involved in realizing this vision.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p112,
author = {Baijun Cheng and Kailong Wang and Ling Shi and Haoyu Wang and Yao Guo and Ding Li and Xiangqun Chen},
title = {Enhancing Semantic Understanding in Pointer Analysis using Large Language Models},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {112-117},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763393},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Reasoning as a Resource: Optimizing ..."
Reasoning as a Resource: Optimizing Fast and Slow Thinking in Code Generation Models
Zongjie Li and Shuai Wang
(Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, China)
This position paper proposes a fundamental shift in designing code generation models: treating reasoning depth as a controllable resource. Rather than being an incidental by-product of prompting, we argue that the trade-off between rapid, direct answers ("fast thinking") and elaborate, chain-of-thought deliberation ("slow thinking") must be explicitly managed. We contend that optimizing reasoning budgets across the entire model lifecycle—from synthetic data creation and benchmarking to real-world deployment—can unlock superior trade-offs among accuracy, latency, and cost. This paper outlines how adaptive control over reasoning can enrich supervision signals, motivate new multi-dimensional benchmarks, and inform cost-aware, security-conscious deployment policies. By viewing fast and slow thinking as complementary modes to be scheduled, we envision coding agents that think deep when necessary and act fast when possible.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p1,
author = {Zongjie Li and Shuai Wang},
title = {Reasoning as a Resource: Optimizing Fast and Slow Thinking in Code Generation Models},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {1-5},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763377},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Preguss: It Analyzes, It Specifies, ..."
Preguss: It Analyzes, It Specifies, It Verifies
Zhongyi Wang, Tengjie Lin, Mingshuai Chen, Mingqi Yang, Haokun Li, Xiao Yi, Shengchao Qin, and Jianwei Yin
(Zhejiang University, China; Peking University, China; Chinese University of Hong Kong, China; Xidian University, China)
Fully automated verification of large-scale software and hardware systems is arguably the holy grail of formal methods. Large language models (LLMs) have recently demonstrated their potential for enhancing the degree of automation in formal verification by, e.g., generating formal specifications as essential to deductive verification, yet exhibit poor scalability due to context-length limitations and, more importantly, the difficulty of inferring complex, interprocedural specifications. This paper outlines Preguss - a modular, fine-grained framework for automating the generation and refinement of formal specifications. Preguss synergizes between static analysis and deductive verification by orchestrating two components: (i) potential runtime error (RTE)-guided construction and prioritization of verification units, and (ii) LLM-aided synthesis of interprocedural specifications at the unit level. We envisage that Preguss paves a compelling path towards the automated verification of large-scale programs.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p118,
author = {Zhongyi Wang and Tengjie Lin and Mingshuai Chen and Mingqi Yang and Haokun Li and Xiao Yi and Shengchao Qin and Jianwei Yin},
title = {Preguss: It Analyzes, It Specifies, It Verifies},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {118-123},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763394},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Hallucination-Resilient LLM-Driven ..."
Hallucination-Resilient LLM-Driven Sound and Tunable Static Analysis: A Case of Higher-Order Control-Flow Analysis
Guannan Wei, Zhuo Zhang, and Caterina Urban
(Inria, France; ENS-PSL University, France; Tufts University, USA; Columbia University, USA)
We argue that soundness remains essential for LLM-driven static analysis and discuss hallucination-resilient approaches in combining LLMs with static analysis that ensure soundness while improving precision. We propose to use LLMs as a way of meta-analysis and investigate this approach in higher-order control-flow analysis, building on the abstracting abstract machine framework and delegating abstract address allocation to an LLM. Our analyzer LLMAAM maintains soundness regardless of LLM behavior, while adaptively tuning analysis precision. We report promising preliminary results and outline broader opportunities for sound LLM-driven analysis.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p6,
author = {Guannan Wei and Zhuo Zhang and Caterina Urban},
title = {Hallucination-Resilient LLM-Driven Sound and Tunable Static Analysis: A Case of Higher-Order Control-Flow Analysis},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {6-11},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763378},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Improving SAST Detection Capability ..."
Improving SAST Detection Capability with LLMs and Enhanced DFA
Yuan Luo, Zhaojun Chen, Yuxin Dong, Haiquan Zhang, Yi Sun, Fei Xie, and Zhiqiang Dong
(Tencent Security Yunding Lab, China; Peking University, China)
Static Application Security Testing (SAST) is a cornerstone of modern vulnerability discovery, enabling tools like GitHub’s CodeQL to identify security flaws in code repositories. However, our large-scale analysis of open-source repositories reveals that SAST’s detection performance is limited by three main factors: (1) incomplete source and sink coverage in built-in propagation rules, (2) failure to recognize sanitization functions, and (3) disruptions in data flow due to insufficient support for certain language features. In this work, we demonstrate how Large Language Models (LLMs) can improve the identification of taint sources and sinks, as well as the recognition of sanitization functions. Using CodeQL as an example, we also introduce the implementation principles of SAST's Data Flow Analysis (DFA). Furthermore, we propose enhancing Java thread support to improve the accuracy of DFA.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p66,
author = {Yuan Luo and Zhaojun Chen and Yuxin Dong and Haiquan Zhang and Yi Sun and Fei Xie and Zhiqiang Dong},
title = {Improving SAST Detection Capability with LLMs and Enhanced DFA},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {66-70},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763388},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "The LLM Era Demands Natural-Language-Aligned ..."
The LLM Era Demands Natural-Language-Aligned Theorem Provers for Mathematics
Qinxiang Cao, Lihan Xie, and Junchi Yan
(Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China)
Traditional theorem provers were envisioned to serve multiple purposes: formalizing state-of-the-art mathematical research to ensure result reliability, developing educational tools to provide students with better feedback, and acting as formal verifiers to enhance large language models' mathematical capabilities. However, their actual performance has fallen short of expectations in practice. We analyze the challenges faced by these scenarios, and propose that the root of these issues lies in the fact that traditional theorem provers were originally designed with a focus solely on verifying logical rigor rather than representing the process by which humans conduct mathematical proofs using natural language. This fundamental design choice creates a significant gap between existing formal proof processes and informal proofs, causing both human and LLMs to expend substantial resources on handling the provers' technical details rather than focusing on key mathematical insights. Therefore, this paper advocates for the design of a new generation of theorem provers featuring proof languages that resemble natural language, capable of aligning informal and formal processes. Thereby harnessing the advanced natural language processing capabilities of the LLM to enable theorem provers to achieve their full potential across the aforementioned scenarios.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p46,
author = {Qinxiang Cao and Lihan Xie and Junchi Yan},
title = {The LLM Era Demands Natural-Language-Aligned Theorem Provers for Mathematics},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {46-50},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763384},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Challenges in C++ to Rust ..."
Challenges in C++ to Rust Translation with Large Language Models: A Preliminary Empirical Study
Yanyan Yan, Yang Feng, Qi He, Jun Zeng, and Baowen Xu
(Nanjing University, China)
C++ programming language is one of the mainstream choices for developing various systems due to its efficiency and widespread application, particularly in fields with high-performance requirements. However, C++ programs may have many memory management and security issues, such as dangling pointers and memory leaks, which pose increasing challenges in modern software development. As a modern programming language designed to address memory safety issues, Rust has gained widespread attention for its ownership system and memory safety features, driving research and practice in migrating C++ code to Rust. However, the differences in syntax and features between C++ and Rust, as well as C++'s complex and object-oriented features, make it extremely difficult to directly convert C++ code into Rust code.
With the development of large language models (LLMs), significant progress has been made in code translation and understanding. This paper aims to investigate the use of LLMs to convert C++ code into Rust code by decomposing the C++ code into independent features, such as classes, templates, and functions etc., and extracting the dependent global symbol definitions through program analysis. We selected GPT-4-turbo and Deepseek-v3 for experimentation, analyzed their performance of translation results, and investigated the root causes made by GPT-4-turbo and Deepseek-v3. By manually classifying errors, we identified the root causes of translation issues and provided findings and suggestions for future research on translating C++ code into Rust code.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p21,
author = {Yanyan Yan and Yang Feng and Qi He and Jun Zeng and Baowen Xu},
title = {Challenges in C++ to Rust Translation with Large Language Models: A Preliminary Empirical Study},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {21-26},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763380},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "The LLM Era Demands Natural-Language-Aligned ..."
The LLM Era Demands Natural-Language-Aligned Theorem Provers for Mathematics
Qinxiang Cao, Lihan Xie, and Junchi Yan
(Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China)
Traditional theorem provers were envisioned to serve multiple purposes: formalizing state-of-the-art mathematical research to ensure result reliability, developing educational tools to provide students with better feedback, and acting as formal verifiers to enhance large language models' mathematical capabilities. However, their actual performance has fallen short of expectations in practice. We analyze the challenges faced by these scenarios, and propose that the root of these issues lies in the fact that traditional theorem provers were originally designed with a focus solely on verifying logical rigor rather than representing the process by which humans conduct mathematical proofs using natural language. This fundamental design choice creates a significant gap between existing formal proof processes and informal proofs, causing both human and LLMs to expend substantial resources on handling the provers' technical details rather than focusing on key mathematical insights. Therefore, this paper advocates for the design of a new generation of theorem provers featuring proof languages that resemble natural language, capable of aligning informal and formal processes. Thereby harnessing the advanced natural language processing capabilities of the LLM to enable theorem provers to achieve their full potential across the aforementioned scenarios.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p46,
author = {Qinxiang Cao and Lihan Xie and Junchi Yan},
title = {The LLM Era Demands Natural-Language-Aligned Theorem Provers for Mathematics},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {46-50},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763384},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Challenges in C++ to Rust ..."
Challenges in C++ to Rust Translation with Large Language Models: A Preliminary Empirical Study
Yanyan Yan, Yang Feng, Qi He, Jun Zeng, and Baowen Xu
(Nanjing University, China)
C++ programming language is one of the mainstream choices for developing various systems due to its efficiency and widespread application, particularly in fields with high-performance requirements. However, C++ programs may have many memory management and security issues, such as dangling pointers and memory leaks, which pose increasing challenges in modern software development. As a modern programming language designed to address memory safety issues, Rust has gained widespread attention for its ownership system and memory safety features, driving research and practice in migrating C++ code to Rust. However, the differences in syntax and features between C++ and Rust, as well as C++'s complex and object-oriented features, make it extremely difficult to directly convert C++ code into Rust code.
With the development of large language models (LLMs), significant progress has been made in code translation and understanding. This paper aims to investigate the use of LLMs to convert C++ code into Rust code by decomposing the C++ code into independent features, such as classes, templates, and functions etc., and extracting the dependent global symbol definitions through program analysis. We selected GPT-4-turbo and Deepseek-v3 for experimentation, analyzed their performance of translation results, and investigated the root causes made by GPT-4-turbo and Deepseek-v3. By manually classifying errors, we identified the root causes of translation issues and provided findings and suggestions for future research on translating C++ code into Rust code.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p21,
author = {Yanyan Yan and Yang Feng and Qi He and Jun Zeng and Baowen Xu},
title = {Challenges in C++ to Rust Translation with Large Language Models: A Preliminary Empirical Study},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {21-26},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763380},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Preguss: It Analyzes, It Specifies, ..."
Preguss: It Analyzes, It Specifies, It Verifies
Zhongyi Wang, Tengjie Lin, Mingshuai Chen, Mingqi Yang, Haokun Li, Xiao Yi, Shengchao Qin, and Jianwei Yin
(Zhejiang University, China; Peking University, China; Chinese University of Hong Kong, China; Xidian University, China)
Fully automated verification of large-scale software and hardware systems is arguably the holy grail of formal methods. Large language models (LLMs) have recently demonstrated their potential for enhancing the degree of automation in formal verification by, e.g., generating formal specifications as essential to deductive verification, yet exhibit poor scalability due to context-length limitations and, more importantly, the difficulty of inferring complex, interprocedural specifications. This paper outlines Preguss - a modular, fine-grained framework for automating the generation and refinement of formal specifications. Preguss synergizes between static analysis and deductive verification by orchestrating two components: (i) potential runtime error (RTE)-guided construction and prioritization of verification units, and (ii) LLM-aided synthesis of interprocedural specifications at the unit level. We envisage that Preguss paves a compelling path towards the automated verification of large-scale programs.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p118,
author = {Zhongyi Wang and Tengjie Lin and Mingshuai Chen and Mingqi Yang and Haokun Li and Xiao Yi and Shengchao Qin and Jianwei Yin},
title = {Preguss: It Analyzes, It Specifies, It Verifies},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {118-123},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763394},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "ClearAgent: Agentic Binary ..."
ClearAgent: Agentic Binary Analysis for Effective Vulnerability Detection
Xiang Chen, Anshunkang Zhou, Chengfeng Ye, and Charles Zhang
(Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, China)
Statically detecting vulnerabilities at the binary level is crucial for the security of Commercial-Off-The-Shelf (COTS) software when source code is not available. However, traditional methods suffer from the inherent limitations of binary translation and static analysis, which hinder their scalability for complex real-world binaries. Recent efforts that leverage Large Language Models (LLMs) for vulnerability detection are still limited by possible hallucination, inaccurate code property retrieval, and insufficient guidance.
In this paper, we propose a new agentic binary analysis framework ClearAgent, which features a novel binary interface that provides both LLM-friendly and analyzer-friendly tools to facilitate effective understanding of binary code semantics with rich context. ClearAgent works by automatically interacting with the interface and iteratively exploring for buggy binary code. For candidate bug reports, ClearAgent further tries to verify the existence of the vulnerability by constructing concrete inputs that can trigger the buggy locations.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p130,
author = {Xiang Chen and Anshunkang Zhou and Chengfeng Ye and Charles Zhang},
title = {ClearAgent: Agentic Binary Analysis for Effective Vulnerability Detection},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {130-137},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763397},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Preguss: It Analyzes, It Specifies, ..."
Preguss: It Analyzes, It Specifies, It Verifies
Zhongyi Wang, Tengjie Lin, Mingshuai Chen, Mingqi Yang, Haokun Li, Xiao Yi, Shengchao Qin, and Jianwei Yin
(Zhejiang University, China; Peking University, China; Chinese University of Hong Kong, China; Xidian University, China)
Fully automated verification of large-scale software and hardware systems is arguably the holy grail of formal methods. Large language models (LLMs) have recently demonstrated their potential for enhancing the degree of automation in formal verification by, e.g., generating formal specifications as essential to deductive verification, yet exhibit poor scalability due to context-length limitations and, more importantly, the difficulty of inferring complex, interprocedural specifications. This paper outlines Preguss - a modular, fine-grained framework for automating the generation and refinement of formal specifications. Preguss synergizes between static analysis and deductive verification by orchestrating two components: (i) potential runtime error (RTE)-guided construction and prioritization of verification units, and (ii) LLM-aided synthesis of interprocedural specifications at the unit level. We envisage that Preguss paves a compelling path towards the automated verification of large-scale programs.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p118,
author = {Zhongyi Wang and Tengjie Lin and Mingshuai Chen and Mingqi Yang and Haokun Li and Xiao Yi and Shengchao Qin and Jianwei Yin},
title = {Preguss: It Analyzes, It Specifies, It Verifies},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {118-123},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763394},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Preguss: It Analyzes, It Specifies, ..."
Preguss: It Analyzes, It Specifies, It Verifies
Zhongyi Wang, Tengjie Lin, Mingshuai Chen, Mingqi Yang, Haokun Li, Xiao Yi, Shengchao Qin, and Jianwei Yin
(Zhejiang University, China; Peking University, China; Chinese University of Hong Kong, China; Xidian University, China)
Fully automated verification of large-scale software and hardware systems is arguably the holy grail of formal methods. Large language models (LLMs) have recently demonstrated their potential for enhancing the degree of automation in formal verification by, e.g., generating formal specifications as essential to deductive verification, yet exhibit poor scalability due to context-length limitations and, more importantly, the difficulty of inferring complex, interprocedural specifications. This paper outlines Preguss - a modular, fine-grained framework for automating the generation and refinement of formal specifications. Preguss synergizes between static analysis and deductive verification by orchestrating two components: (i) potential runtime error (RTE)-guided construction and prioritization of verification units, and (ii) LLM-aided synthesis of interprocedural specifications at the unit level. We envisage that Preguss paves a compelling path towards the automated verification of large-scale programs.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p118,
author = {Zhongyi Wang and Tengjie Lin and Mingshuai Chen and Mingqi Yang and Haokun Li and Xiao Yi and Shengchao Qin and Jianwei Yin},
title = {Preguss: It Analyzes, It Specifies, It Verifies},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {118-123},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763394},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "CG-Bench: Can Language Models ..."
CG-Bench: Can Language Models Assist Call Graph Construction in the Real World?
Ting Yuan, Wenrui Zhang, Dong Chen, and Jie Wang
(Huawei Technologies, China)
Language models for coding are shifting their focus from function-level to repository-level, with complex function invocations. We introduce CG-Bench, the first manually constructed benchmark that measures the ability to understand call graphs for language models. This benchmark contains 104 call sites and related code snippets associated with call chains from 7 representative open-source C/C++ projects. Language models are tasked with inference the calling targets from them. We evaluated four popular language models on CG-Bench. Surprisingly, all four models with different prompt settings achieve accuracy greater than 50% and Deepseek-6.7b with few-shot prompts reaches 69.70%. We further show four findings from a micro study, which demonstrates that using language models for call graph construction is promising and the performance can be improved by prompt hacking, removing irrelevant information, etc.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p12,
author = {Ting Yuan and Wenrui Zhang and Dong Chen and Jie Wang},
title = {CG-Bench: Can Language Models Assist Call Graph Construction in the Real World?},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {12-20},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763379},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Challenges in C++ to Rust ..."
Challenges in C++ to Rust Translation with Large Language Models: A Preliminary Empirical Study
Yanyan Yan, Yang Feng, Qi He, Jun Zeng, and Baowen Xu
(Nanjing University, China)
C++ programming language is one of the mainstream choices for developing various systems due to its efficiency and widespread application, particularly in fields with high-performance requirements. However, C++ programs may have many memory management and security issues, such as dangling pointers and memory leaks, which pose increasing challenges in modern software development. As a modern programming language designed to address memory safety issues, Rust has gained widespread attention for its ownership system and memory safety features, driving research and practice in migrating C++ code to Rust. However, the differences in syntax and features between C++ and Rust, as well as C++'s complex and object-oriented features, make it extremely difficult to directly convert C++ code into Rust code.
With the development of large language models (LLMs), significant progress has been made in code translation and understanding. This paper aims to investigate the use of LLMs to convert C++ code into Rust code by decomposing the C++ code into independent features, such as classes, templates, and functions etc., and extracting the dependent global symbol definitions through program analysis. We selected GPT-4-turbo and Deepseek-v3 for experimentation, analyzed their performance of translation results, and investigated the root causes made by GPT-4-turbo and Deepseek-v3. By manually classifying errors, we identified the root causes of translation issues and provided findings and suggestions for future research on translating C++ code into Rust code.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p21,
author = {Yanyan Yan and Yang Feng and Qi He and Jun Zeng and Baowen Xu},
title = {Challenges in C++ to Rust Translation with Large Language Models: A Preliminary Empirical Study},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {21-26},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763380},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "ClearAgent: Agentic Binary ..."
ClearAgent: Agentic Binary Analysis for Effective Vulnerability Detection
Xiang Chen, Anshunkang Zhou, Chengfeng Ye, and Charles Zhang
(Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, China)
Statically detecting vulnerabilities at the binary level is crucial for the security of Commercial-Off-The-Shelf (COTS) software when source code is not available. However, traditional methods suffer from the inherent limitations of binary translation and static analysis, which hinder their scalability for complex real-world binaries. Recent efforts that leverage Large Language Models (LLMs) for vulnerability detection are still limited by possible hallucination, inaccurate code property retrieval, and insufficient guidance.
In this paper, we propose a new agentic binary analysis framework ClearAgent, which features a novel binary interface that provides both LLM-friendly and analyzer-friendly tools to facilitate effective understanding of binary code semantics with rich context. ClearAgent works by automatically interacting with the interface and iteratively exploring for buggy binary code. For candidate bug reports, ClearAgent further tries to verify the existence of the vulnerability by constructing concrete inputs that can trigger the buggy locations.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p130,
author = {Xiang Chen and Anshunkang Zhou and Chengfeng Ye and Charles Zhang},
title = {ClearAgent: Agentic Binary Analysis for Effective Vulnerability Detection},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {130-137},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763397},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Improving SAST Detection Capability ..."
Improving SAST Detection Capability with LLMs and Enhanced DFA
Yuan Luo, Zhaojun Chen, Yuxin Dong, Haiquan Zhang, Yi Sun, Fei Xie, and Zhiqiang Dong
(Tencent Security Yunding Lab, China; Peking University, China)
Static Application Security Testing (SAST) is a cornerstone of modern vulnerability discovery, enabling tools like GitHub’s CodeQL to identify security flaws in code repositories. However, our large-scale analysis of open-source repositories reveals that SAST’s detection performance is limited by three main factors: (1) incomplete source and sink coverage in built-in propagation rules, (2) failure to recognize sanitization functions, and (3) disruptions in data flow due to insufficient support for certain language features. In this work, we demonstrate how Large Language Models (LLMs) can improve the identification of taint sources and sinks, as well as the recognition of sanitization functions. Using CodeQL as an example, we also introduce the implementation principles of SAST's Data Flow Analysis (DFA). Furthermore, we propose enhancing Java thread support to improve the accuracy of DFA.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p66,
author = {Yuan Luo and Zhaojun Chen and Yuxin Dong and Haiquan Zhang and Yi Sun and Fei Xie and Zhiqiang Dong},
title = {Improving SAST Detection Capability with LLMs and Enhanced DFA},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {66-70},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763388},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "CG-Bench: Can Language Models ..."
CG-Bench: Can Language Models Assist Call Graph Construction in the Real World?
Ting Yuan, Wenrui Zhang, Dong Chen, and Jie Wang
(Huawei Technologies, China)
Language models for coding are shifting their focus from function-level to repository-level, with complex function invocations. We introduce CG-Bench, the first manually constructed benchmark that measures the ability to understand call graphs for language models. This benchmark contains 104 call sites and related code snippets associated with call chains from 7 representative open-source C/C++ projects. Language models are tasked with inference the calling targets from them. We evaluated four popular language models on CG-Bench. Surprisingly, all four models with different prompt settings achieve accuracy greater than 50% and Deepseek-6.7b with few-shot prompts reaches 69.70%. We further show four findings from a micro study, which demonstrates that using language models for call graph construction is promising and the performance can be improved by prompt hacking, removing irrelevant information, etc.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p12,
author = {Ting Yuan and Wenrui Zhang and Dong Chen and Jie Wang},
title = {CG-Bench: Can Language Models Assist Call Graph Construction in the Real World?},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {12-20},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763379},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Hallucination-Resilient LLM-Driven ..."
Hallucination-Resilient LLM-Driven Sound and Tunable Static Analysis: A Case of Higher-Order Control-Flow Analysis
Guannan Wei, Zhuo Zhang, and Caterina Urban
(Inria, France; ENS-PSL University, France; Tufts University, USA; Columbia University, USA)
We argue that soundness remains essential for LLM-driven static analysis and discuss hallucination-resilient approaches in combining LLMs with static analysis that ensure soundness while improving precision. We propose to use LLMs as a way of meta-analysis and investigate this approach in higher-order control-flow analysis, building on the abstracting abstract machine framework and delegating abstract address allocation to an LLM. Our analyzer LLMAAM maintains soundness regardless of LLM behavior, while adaptively tuning analysis precision. We report promising preliminary results and outline broader opportunities for sound LLM-driven analysis.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p6,
author = {Guannan Wei and Zhuo Zhang and Caterina Urban},
title = {Hallucination-Resilient LLM-Driven Sound and Tunable Static Analysis: A Case of Higher-Order Control-Flow Analysis},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {6-11},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763378},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Towards Repository-Level Program ..."
Towards Repository-Level Program Verification with Large Language Models
Si Cheng Zhong and Xujie Si
(University of Toronto, Canada)
Recent advancements in large language models (LLMs) suggest great promises in code and proof generations. However, scaling automated formal verification to real-world projects requires resolving cross-module dependencies and global contexts, which are crucial challenges overlooked by existing LLM-based methods with a special focus on targeting isolated, function-level verification tasks. To systematically explore and address the significant challenges of verifying entire software repositories, we introduce RVBench, the first verification benchmark explicitly designed for repository-level evaluation, constructed from four diverse and complex open-source Verus projects.
We further introduce RagVerus, an extensible framework that synergizes retrieval-augmented generation with context-aware prompting to automate proof synthesis for multi-module repositories. RagVerus triples proof pass rates on existing benchmarks under constrained model inference budgets, and achieves a 27% relative improvement on the more challenging RVBench benchmark, demonstrating a scalable and sample-efficient verification solution.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p27,
author = {Si Cheng Zhong and Xujie Si},
title = {Towards Repository-Level Program Verification with Large Language Models},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {27-39},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763382},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "ClearAgent: Agentic Binary ..."
ClearAgent: Agentic Binary Analysis for Effective Vulnerability Detection
Xiang Chen, Anshunkang Zhou, Chengfeng Ye, and Charles Zhang
(Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, China)
Statically detecting vulnerabilities at the binary level is crucial for the security of Commercial-Off-The-Shelf (COTS) software when source code is not available. However, traditional methods suffer from the inherent limitations of binary translation and static analysis, which hinder their scalability for complex real-world binaries. Recent efforts that leverage Large Language Models (LLMs) for vulnerability detection are still limited by possible hallucination, inaccurate code property retrieval, and insufficient guidance.
In this paper, we propose a new agentic binary analysis framework ClearAgent, which features a novel binary interface that provides both LLM-friendly and analyzer-friendly tools to facilitate effective understanding of binary code semantics with rich context. ClearAgent works by automatically interacting with the interface and iteratively exploring for buggy binary code. For candidate bug reports, ClearAgent further tries to verify the existence of the vulnerability by constructing concrete inputs that can trigger the buggy locations.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p130,
author = {Xiang Chen and Anshunkang Zhou and Chengfeng Ye and Charles Zhang},
title = {ClearAgent: Agentic Binary Analysis for Effective Vulnerability Detection},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {130-137},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763397},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version
LMPL '25: "Understanding Formal Reasoning ..."
Understanding Formal Reasoning Failures in LLMs as Abstract Interpreters
Jacqueline Mitchell, Brian Hyeongseok Kim, Chenyu Zhou, and Chao Wang
(University of Southern California, USA)
Large language models (LLMs) are increasingly used for program verification, and yet little is known about how they reason about program semantics during this process. In this work, we focus on abstract interpretation based-reasoning for invariant generation and introduce two novel prompting strategies that aim to elicit such reasoning from LLMs. We evaluate these strategies across several state-of-the-art LLMs on 22 programs from the SV-COMP benchmark suite widely used in software verification. We analyze both the soundness of the generated invariants and the key thematic patterns in the models’ reasoning errors. This work aims to highlight new research opportunities at the intersection of LLMs and program verification for applying LLMs to verification tasks and advancing their reasoning capabilities in this application.
@InProceedings{LMPL25p71,
author = {Jacqueline Mitchell and Brian Hyeongseok Kim and Chenyu Zhou and Chao Wang},
title = {Understanding Formal Reasoning Failures in LLMs as Abstract Interpreters},
booktitle = {Proc.\ LMPL},
publisher = {ACM},
pages = {71-83},
doi = {10.1145/3759425.3763389},
year = {2025},
}
Publisher's Version